Table 4 Joint associations between exposure to ambient volatile organic compounds, ethnic enclaves, and gestational diabetes mellitus among Asian/Pacific Islander women in the Consortium on Safe Labor (2002–2008)

Benzene

Low

Yes

242

Ref.

245

Ref.

No

4115

2.85 (1.57, 5.17)^a

4179

2.38 (1.36, 4.16)^a

High

Yes

1649

2.07 (1.09, 3.94)^a

1646

1.65 (0.90, 3.03)

No

3063

3.45 (1.77, 6.72)^a

2999

2.70 (1.45, 5.03)^a

Ethylbenzene

Low

Yes

245

Ref.

245

Ref.

No

3916

2.43 (1.37, 4.32)^a

3943

2.30 (1.29, 4.09)^a

High

Yes

1646

1.70 (0.90, 3.22)

1646

1.56 (0.82, 2.95)

No

3262

2.76 (1.32, 5.75)^a

3235

2.29 (1.10, 4.77)^a

MTB Ether

Low

Yes

738

Ref.

596

Ref.

No

4578

1.38 (1.02, 1.87)^a

4436

1.40 (1.01, 1.95)

High

Yes

1153

0.87 (0.58, 1.31)

1295

0.90 (0.60, 1.36)

No

2600

1.84 (1.34, 2.52)^a

2742

1.88 (1.33, 2.66)^a

N-hexane

Low

Yes

535

Ref.

410

Ref.

No

3834

1.56 (1.11, 2.20)^a

3984

1.72 (1.16, 2.55)^a

High

Yes

1356

1.03 (0.68, 1.57)

1481

1.16 (0.74, 1.83)

No

3344

2.09 (1.39, 3.15)^a

3194

2.25 (1.43, 3.53)^a

EMK

Low

Yes

739

Ref.

627

Ref.

No

4827

1.62 (1.19, 2.20)^a

4615

1.43 (1.04, 1.96)^a

High

Yes

1152

1.09 (0.72, 1.63)

1264

0.85 (0.57, 1.28)

No

2351

1.84 (1.32, 2.58)^a

2563

1.67 (1.18, 2.36)^a

m-xylene

Low

Yes

245

Ref.

245

Ref.

No

3909

2.33 (1.31, 4.15)^a

3926

2.30 (1.29, 4.08)^a

High

Yes

1646

1.59 (0.84, 3.01)

1646

1.55 (0.82, 2.94)

No

3269

2.40 (1.15, 5.00)^a

3252

2.27 (1.08, 4.76)^a

o-xylene

Low

Yes

304

Ref.

246

Ref.

No

3897

2.37 (1.42, 3.98)^a

3936

2.35 (1.32, 4.17)^a

High

Yes

1587

1.66 (0.94, 2.94)

1645

1.60 (0.85, 3.04)

No

3281

2.52 (1.30, 4.87)^a

3242

2.42 (1.15, 5.09)^a

p-xylene

Low

Yes

438

Ref.

338

Ref.

No

3868

1.87 (1.25, 2.78)^a

3900

1.93 (1.23, 3.03)^a

High

Yes

1453

1.27 (0.80, 2.03)

1553

1.29 (0.77, 2.16)

No

3310

2.02 (1.20, 3.40)^a

3278

1.93 (1.06, 3.53)^a

Propene

Low

Yes

827

Ref.

945

Ref.

No

4728

1.44 (1.07, 1.93)^a

4471

1.45 (1.09, 1.93)^a

High

Yes

1064

0.93 (0.64, 1.36)

946

0.94 (0.66, 1.34)

No

2450

1.99 (1.46, 2.72)^a

2707

1.96 (1.44, 2.67)^a

Sesquiterpene

Low

Yes

818

Ref.

741

Ref.

No

3753

1.55 (1.15, 2.10)^a

3841

1.38 (1.02, 1.87)^a

High

Yes

1073

1.13 (0.77, 1.65)

1150

0.87 (0.59, 1.28)

No

3425

2.23 (1.59, 3.14)^a

3337

1.91 (1.36, 2.69)^a

Toluene

Low

Yes

334

Ref.

245

Ref.

No

3891

2.39 (1.45, 3.95)^a

3934

2.31 (1.30, 4.11)^a

High

Yes

1557

1.68 (0.96, 2.91)

1646

1.57 (0.83, 2.97)

No

3287

2.38 (1.25, 4.52)^a

3244

2.31 (1.09, 4.89)^a

Styrene

Low

Yes

736

Ref.

619

Ref.

No

6268

1.41 (1.04, 1.93)^a

6266

1.47 (1.05, 2.06)^a

High

Yes

1155

0.84 (0.56, 1.26)

1272

0.89 (0.59, 1.34)

No

910

1.59 (1.13, 2.24)^a

912

1.56 (1.08, 2.25)^a

1,3 butadiene

Low

Yes

732

Ref.

595

Ref.

No

6197

1.39 (1.02, 1.88)^a

6354

1.48 (1.06, 2.06)^a

High

Yes

1159

0.83 (0.55, 1.25)

1296

0.86 (0.57, 1.29)

No

981

1.67 (1.19, 2.33)^a

824

1.46 (1.01, 2.13)^a

Cyclohexane

Low

Yes

1022

Ref.

1016

Ref.

No

3747

1.86 (1.37, 2.53)^a

3794

1.70 (1.26, 2.28)^a

High

Yes

869

1.31 (0.92, 1.87)

875

1.08 (0.76, 1.54)

No

3431

1.73 (1.15, 2.59)^a

3384

1.46 (0.98, 2.18)